- American Merganser, Male
MERGANSER Mergus merganser americanus Cassin Other Names.—Shelldrake; Goosander; Fish Duck; Sawbill; American Merganser. Description.—One of the largest of the ducks; bill long and narrow, with teeth on both mandibles. Adult male: Head and upper neck greenish black; lower neck, patches in wings, and underparts white; belly suffused with salmon-pink, noticeable in some individuals; back, shoulders, and wings black; rump and tail gray; bill and feet red; eyes bright red. Adult female: Head, with two large crests, and neck rich brown, marked with white areas in front of eye and on chin and upper throat; upperparts ashy gray; patch in wings, and breast and belly white. Length: 25 inches. Range in Pennsylvania.—A fairly common and regular migrant along the larger waterways and sometimes on the smaller streams from about March 15 to April 20 and from October 1 to December 1. It frequently occurs in winter when the water is free of ice. The mergansers are all expert fishermen and like to fish in swift water. They dive easily and their serrate bills help them to hold their slippery prey. The female Merganser is difficult to distinguish from the female Red-breasted Merganser; in the present species, however, the white area on the chin and upper throat is sharply defined, whereas in the Red-breasted species the chin and throat are not white, but of a brownish color, paler than the rest of the head. - Double-crested Cormorant, Breeding Plumage
DOUBLE-CRESTED CORMORANT Phalacrocorax auritus auritus (Lesson) Other Name.—Shag. Description.—Four toes all webbed together; bill long and strongly hooked at tip; tail stiff and moderately long; plumage thick and firm. 16Adults in breeding plumage: Glossy greenish black, save on back which is dark gray, each feather being margined with lighter gray; two filamentous tufts of black feathers on back of head; neck with thin sprinkling of silken white feathers during period of courtship; bill blackish, marked at base with dull yellow; sack under bill yellow; eyes bright green. Immature and adult in winter (the plumage usually seen in Pennsylvania): Without crests, and whole plumage brownish black, somewhat mottled beneath, and with light area on throat; eyes grayish green, not bright green. Length: About 30 inches. Range in Pennsylvania.—A migrant found principally along the larger water-ways from about March 20 to May 10 and from September 15 to November 15. It is occasionally seen in winter when the water is free of ice. - Black Tern, Adult
BLACK TERN Chlidonias nigra surinamensis (Gmelin) Other Name.—Marsh Tern. Description.—Size small; tail short, forked. Adults in summer: Head and underparts black, save under tail-coverts, which are white; upperparts gray; bill and feet red. Adults in winter and immature: White, with pearl-gray back and wings and dusky spots on head; bill and feet dusky. Length: 10 inches. Range in Pennsylvania.—Irregular as a migrant throughout the Commonwealth; more frequently seen than other Terns about marshes and on small bodies of water; usually seen between April 25 and September 30. Though it is thus to be seen in midsummer irregularly, it is not known to nest in Pennsylvania at the present time. - Canada Goose
Other Names.—Wild Goose; Honker. Description.—Size large, about that of a domestic Goose, with about the same proportions; sexes similar. Head and neck black, a broad band under eye, and across throat, white; upperparts brownish gray, the feathers margined with a lighter shade, giving a somewhat scaled appearance; breast and sides gray-brown, more or less as in back; belly white; rump and tail black; upper tail-coverts white. Feet and bill black; eyes dark brown. Length: About 3 feet. Range in Pennsylvania.—A regular and sometimes common migrant from mid-February to early April and from October 15 to November 30, sometimes occurring in winter, even when ice covers the lakes, at which times the great birds stand about on the frozen surface. As a rule, Canada Geese do not stop long in Pennsylvania; most flocks do not linger here at all, merely passing over. - Herring Gull, Breeding Plumage
Other Names.—Sea Gull; Gray Gull. Description.—Sexes similar. Adults in summer: White, with pearl-gray back and wings; tips of wings black with white spots; bill yellow with orange spot near tip of lower mandible; feet pale pink; eyes pale yellow. Adults in winter: Similar, with gray spots on head and neck. Immature birds: Dark gray-brown at a distance, with blackish bill and dark brown eyes; in the hand the upper-parts are found to be dark gray, considerably marked with buffy. The acquiring of fully adult plumage requires several moults. Birds which are not fully adult may have black-tipped, white tails. Young in their first flight plumage are darker than older individuals. Length: 24 inches. - Loon, Breeding Plumage
Gavia immer immer (Brünnich) Other Names.—Great Northern Diver; Loom. Description.—Size large; bill long and sharp; tail very short, with legs sticking out behind. Adults in spring: Upperparts black, with bluish and greenish reflections; patches on throat and sides of neck streaked with white; back and wings marked regularly with rows of white squares; underparts silvery white; sides black, spotted finely with white; eyes red. Immature birds and adults in winter: Upperparts blackish, margined with gray and without white spots; throat and neck grayish; underparts white. Length: about 30 inches. - Apples
- Later Costume of Ethiopian Nobles
- Ethiopian Noble Lady
- Sewn Sleeveless Kalasiris
Sewn Sleeveless Kalasiris - Egyptian Queen
Egyptian queen - Egyptian king
Egyptian king - Egyptian Female Costume
Egyptian Female Costume - The Keep of Barnard Castle
The outer ditch of the place, also the town ditch, commenced in a deep ravine close north of the keep, and was carried along the north front, skirting what are called “the Flats”; thence along the east front, between the wall and the town, and thence round the south end, and so beneath a part of the west front, until it is lost in the steep ground near the bridge, having been altogether nearly 700 yards in length. - Plan of Barnard Castle
BARNARD, or Bernard’s, Castle, so called from its founder, Bernard de Baliol, stands in a commanding position on the left bank of the Tees, here the boundary between Durham and Yorkshire. It is a large castle, and was long a very important one, both from its position on the frontier of the bishopric, and from the power of the great barons who built and maintained it. A. Inner Ward. B. Middle Ward. C. Town Ward. D. Outer Ward. E. North Gate. F. Brackenbury’s Tower. G. Round Tower. - Plan of the Castle of Arques
ARQUES is one of the earliest examples of a Norman castle, for which reason, though not an English fortress, it has been thought convenient to include an account of it in these pages. This grand castle crowns and occupies the head of a steep and bold cape or promontory, in this case a spur from the great chalk table-land of the “Pays de Caux.” On the west it is flanked by a short but deep combe or dry valley, and on the east by the deeper and far wider valley of the Bethune and Varenne—streams derived from different sources, but which here meander across a broad and level bottom, above half a mile wide, until, a little below the castle, uniting, they receive the tributary Aulne, and, thus combined, under the name of “la Rivière d’Arques,” fall into the sea at the port of Dieppe. A. Keep. B. Inner Ward. C. Outer Ward. D. Walls of Le Bel. E. Old Ditch. F. Glacis. G. New Ditch. H. Norman Gate. I. South Gate. K. Barbican. L. North Gate. a. Galleries. - Plan of Alnwick Castle
THE castle of Alnwick stands upon a moderate eminence on the south bank of, and about 150 yards distant from, the river Alne, which was thus its immediate defence against the Scot. It is about five miles from, and about 200 feet above, the sea-level. Towards the east and south the castle is cut off from the town of Alnwick by a deep combe, once the bed of the Bow Burn. This has been trimmed and scarped by art, and its upper part towards the town has been almost obliterated by modern upfilling. 1. Donjon. 2. Inner Ward. 3. Outer Ward. 4. Terrace. 5. Stable Courts. 6. Kitchen. 7. Estate Offices. 8. Ravine. 9. Ditch. 10. Tower. 11. Inner Gate. 12. Middle Gate. 13. Barbican. 14. Hall. 15. Withdrawing-room. 16. Music-room. 17. Ante-room. 18. Library. Prudhoe Tower. 19. Chapel. 20. State Bedroom. 21. Entrance. 22. Spur Gallery. 23. West Garret. 24. Abbot’s Tower. 25. Falconer’s Tower. 26. Postern Tower. 27. Constable’s Tower. 28. Ravine Tower. 29. Hotspur’s Chair. 30. East Garret. 31. Warder’s Tower. 32. Auditor’s Tower. 33. Clock Tower. 34. Avener’s Tower. 35. Garden. - Twisting a man's Ears
He is held securely by two men, in the service of a tribunal, who are instructed to give pain, by a particular method of twisting the cartilages of the ears . - Torturing the Fingers
This is effected by placing small pieces of wood betwixt them, and then drawing them very forcibly together with cords. It is frequently inflicted as a punishment upon disorderly women . There are no people existing, who pay so sacred an attention to the laws of decency as the Chinese ; habituated in preserving the constant appearance of modesty and self -controul, nothing is more uncommon amongst them, than deleterious examples of unblushing vice ; and if there be truth in the old maxim , that want of decency, either in action , or in word, betrays a deficiency of understanding, they certainly indicate more sense than some other nations , who affect to excel them in education and refinement. The general manners of people of every condition in China wear as modest a habit, as their persons. They discover no gratification in wresting their proper language into impure meanings; and grossly offensive phrases are only to be heard amongst the very dregs of the community, and at the risk of immediate and severe judicial correction . - The capital Punishment of the Cord
The usual capital punishments in China are strangling, and beheading. The former is the most common , and is decreed against those, who are found guilty of crimes, which , however capital, are only held in the second `rank` of atrocity. For instance, all acts of homicide, whether intentional or accidental; every species of fraud, committed upon government : the seduction of a woman, whether married or single; giving abusive language to a parent, plundering or defacing a burying place ; robbing with destructive weapons : and for wearing pearls. It would not, perhaps, be possible to form any probable conjecture of the motive, which has induced the Chinese legislators to attach the pain of death to the wearing of a precious gem . The fact is, therefore, only stated from the information of various writers, and remains to be explained by some future commentator. Criminals are sometimes strangled with a bow -string, but on general occasions, a cord is made use of, which fastens the person to a cross, and one turn being taken round his neck , it is drawn tight by an athletic executioner. Men of distinction ,are usually strangled, as the more honourable death ; and where the Emperor is inclined to shew an extraordinary mark of attention towards a mandarin , condemned to die, he sends him a silken cord, with permission to be his own executioner . - Punishment of the Wooden Collar
This punishment is deemed very disgraceful. The collar is formed of heavy pieces of wood, closed together, and having a hole in the centre, which fits the neck of the offender, who, when this machine is upon him, can neither see his own feet, nor put his hands to his mouth . He is not permitted to reside in any habitation , nor even to take rest for any considerable length of time, an inferior officer of justice constantly attending, to prevent him. By night and by day, he carries this load , which is heavier or lighter, according to the nature of the crime, and the strength of the wearer. The weight of the common sort of these wooden collars , is only fifty or sixty pounds, but there are those, which weigh two hundred, and which are so grievous to the bearers that sometimes , through shame, pain , want of proper nourishment, or of natural rest, they have been known to expire under them . The criminals find various methods, however, of mitigating this punishment: by walking in company with their relations and friends, who support the corners of the collar, and prevent it from pressing upon the shoulders ; by resting it upon a table , a bench , or against a tree; or, according to the representation in the accompanying Plate, by having chair constructed for the purpose, with four posts of equal heights to support the machine. When this ponderous incumbrance is fixed upon an offender, it is always before the magistrate, who has decreed it ; and upon each side, over the places where the wood is joined , long slips of paper are pasted, upon which the name of the person , the crime, which he has committed, and the duration of his punishment, are written, in very distinct characters ; a seal is likewise stamped upon the paper, to prevent the instrument from being opened . Three months is the usual time appointed for those to bear about this collar, who have been convicted of robbery. For defamation, gambling, or breaches of the peace ,it is carried a few weeks ; and insolvent debtors are sometimes ordered to bear it, until they have satisfied their creditors . When the offender is to be liberated from the collar, it must be in the presence of the magistrate, who has imposed it ; he then generally orders him a few blows of the pan-tsee, and dismisses him, with an exhortation to comport himself more regularly in future . Near the figure in this Engraving, are represented the basin and the sort of spoon , by which persons in that situation are supplied with food. - Punishment of the Swin
This man is suspended by his shoulders and ankles, in a very painful situation : at intervals, two attending officers afford some trifling alleviation of his sufferings, by supporting him with a bamboo, passed under his breast. Pencil, ink, and paper, are ready, to note down whatever he may say. This punishment, together with the preceding one, is chiefly inflicted upon such merchants as have been detected in committing frauds, impositions, or any other unwarrantable tricks of trade. - Punishment of a Woooden Tube
A piece ofbamboo cane is provided, which nearly corresponds with the height of the criminal, and is of considerable circumference. This bamboo being perfectly hollow , admits the passage of a large iron chain, one end of which is rivetted round a stake, the other encircles his neck, and is confined there by a padlock. His legs are fettered by a few links of chain. - Punishing an Interpreter
A large piece of bamboo cane is placed behind his knees; this is trampled on by two men, one standing on each end, and who convey more or less pain, as they approach to, or recee from, his person. A punishment, decreed against interpreters, detected of wilful misinterpretation. - Hamstringing a Malefactor
This punishment is reported to have been inflicted upon malefactors, who have endeavoured to make their escape. A vessel containing Chunam , a species of mortar, is at hand , to be applied, by way of styptic , to the wounds. It is said , that this punishment has been lately abolished , the legislature considering, that the natural inclination for liberty, merited not a chastisement of such severity. - Conducting an Offender into Banishment
A PERSON, sentenced to transportation, is thus led, by an officer of justice, into the country appointed for his future residence . He carries a mat to serve him as a bed, and a leaf of a palm tree, to protect him from the weather. Upon his back, his crime, his sentence, and his name, are displayed in conspicuous characters. This punishment is inflicted upon those, who have struck an elder brother ; who have incurred debts by gaming, which they are unable to pay ; and for such other offences as appear to render the perpetrator unworthy to continue in his native country . When offenders are thus conducted into some distant province, they are to be recalled, but, if into Tartary, their banishment is perpetual. - Close confinement
This criminal is fastened , at full length, upon a sort of bedstead, a chump of wood serving for a pillow. His hands and his feet are loaded with iron manacles and fetters ; his neck is chained to a post, and fastened by two padlocks. - Burning a Man's Eyes with Lime
A small quantity of unslacked lime is put into pieces of cotton cloth, and closely applied to the organs of sight. - An Offender undergoing the Bastinade
He is thrown flat upon his face, and held in that position by one, or more, if necessary, of the magistrate's attendants kneeling upon his back, whilst another applies the pan-tsee to his posteriors. The pan-tsee is a thick piece of split bamboo cane, the lower end of which is about four inches in width, and the upper end small and smooth , to render the instrument more convenient for the hand. Mandarins of power have usually some persons in their train , who attend them with these pan-tsees , whenever they travel, or go into public, and who are ready, at the nod of their master, to exercise their office in the manner described .* After this ceremony, it is customary for the delinquent to return thanks to the Mandarin , for the good care he takes of his education. - A Man fastened to a Block of Wood
A strong ring of iron is passed through one corner of a short, heavy, piece of timber. From this ring, a weighty chain is continued round the neck of the man, and fastened, by a padlock, upon his breast. - A Malefactor in a Cage
This person is farther secured by a chain from his neck to his ankle, from whence another chain proceeds, round one of the corner posts of his wooden cage , the entrance to which is through two moveable bars ; these bars are fastened by an iron bolt, that passes through some staples, and is prevented from sliding, by a padlock. A plank serves this prisoner for a seat, and for a bed. - A Malefactor conducted to Execution
The convict is fettered, and, if he uses abusive or inflammatory language, gagged. His arms are pinioned behind his back, and he bears a board, on which are written his name, his crime, and his sentence. If he hesitates to proceed , he is driven to the place of execution by some inferior officers of justice. - The Rack
This horrible engine of barbarity and error is not peculiar to Roman Catholic countries, it is used even in China , for the purpose of extorting confession . The method of employing it, in torturing the ankles, is exhibited in this Plate . The instrument is composed of a thick , strong plank, having a contrivance at one end to secure the hands, and at the other a sort of double wooden vice . The vice is formed of three stout uprights, two of which are moveable, but steadied by a block , that is fastened on each side. The ankles of the culprit being placed in the machine, a cord is passed round the uprights, and held fast by two men . The chief tormentor then gradually introduces a wedge into the intervals , alternately changing sides . This method of forcing an expansion at the upper part, causes the lower ends to draw towards the central upright , which is fixed into the plank , and thereby compresses the ankles of the wretched sufferer ; who, provided he be fortified by innocence, or by resolution, endures the advances of the wedge, until his bones are completely reduced to a jelly. - The Manner of Beheading
This sort of punishment, being deemed in the highest degree ignominious , is only inflicted for crimes, which are regarded by the Chinese government, as the most prejudicial to society ; such as conspiracy,assassination , committing any offence against the person of the Emperor, or attempting the life of any of the imperial family ; revolting, insurrection , striking a parent, or any other unnatural sort of crime. The malefactor, who is condemned to be beheaded, is made to kneel upon the ground, the board of infamy is taken from his back, and the executioner, by a single blow of a two - handed sword, strikes off his head with great dexterity. These headsmen , and indeed, the generality of inferior officers of justice in China, are selected from the soldiery, according to the custom of primitive barbarians ; neither is this employment considered more ignominious, than the post of principal officer of executive justice in other countries . Decapitation is held, by the Chinese, as the most disgraceful kind of death ; because the head, which is the principal part of a man , is separated from the body, and that body is not consigned to the grave as entire as he received it from his parents .. If a great mandarin be convicted of any atrocious offence, he is executed in this manner like the meanest person . After the head is severed , it is frequently suspended from a tree, by the side of a public road ; the body is thrown into a ditch , the law having deemed it unworthy the respect of regular funereal rites . When a sentence is submitted to the Emperor for his approbation, if the crime be of the first degree of atrocity , he orders the malefactor to be executed without delay ; when it is only of an ordinary nature, he directs, that the criminal shall be imprisoned until the autumn, and then executed ; a particular day of that season being allotted for such ceremonies. The Emperor of China seldom orders a subject to be executed , until he has consulted with his first law officers, whether he can avoid it, with out infringing on the constitution of his realm . He fasts for a certain period, previous to signing an order for an execution ; and his imperial majesty esteems those years of his reign the most illustrious and most fortunate , in which he has had the least occasion to let fall upon his subjects the rigorous sword of justice. - Punishing a Boatman
A species of correction appointed for boatmen, or, as they are termed in England, watermen . Having been convicted of some misbehaviour, he is compelled to kneel : one of the officers of justice prevents him from flinching, whilst another grasps his hair, and bestows a certain number of blows upon each side of his face, with a sort of double battledore, made of thick leather. - A Malefactor chained to an Iron Bar
His neck is encompassed with a very wide cape of iron , which is fitted to his shoulders ; his legs are fettered with iron shackles, and from these, as well as from the cape, a few links extend to the bar, which is about half a yard higher than his head. The links, sliding upon the bar, accommodate themselves to the motions of the prisoner ; the small piece of plank, that is attached to the shackles , serves him for a seat. From the top of the bar, there depends a little board, upon which the name and crime of the malefactor are inscribed. - A Culprit conveyed to Prison
An iron chain, fastened by a padlock, is put round his neck, and, if he refuses to proceed , inferior officers of justice compel him, after the manner described . - A Culprit before a Magistrate
It is the custom in China , for a Mandarin of justice to administer it daily , morning and evening , in his own house, where he is attended by his secretary, or clerk, and by inferior officers, some of them bearing iron shackles, and others, pan-tsees . Upon his right hand stands the Prosecutor, or Informer ; and before him is a table with a covering of silk , and the implements of writing for the secretary to take down the depositions and defence . These having been written in black ink, the magistrate signs them with red, and seals them with the same colour. On the table there are, also, a number of small sticks, tipped with red ; these are kept in open cases , and are used in the following manner : if a culprit is convicted of a petty offence, the magistrate causes him to be immediately chastised, and released . The usual punishment, upon such occasions, is the pan -tsee, or bastinade, and the number of blows to be inflicted is signified by the magistrate's casting some of the above men tioned small sticks upon the floor : each stick denotes five blows. The culprit, who, during the examination , has awaited the decree upon his hands and knees , is then seized by the attendants, and punished as will be seen in a subsequent Plate . After the magistrate has thrown the sticks, he talks of other affairs, drinks his tea , or smokes his tobacco . It is only for trivial breaches of the Chinese Laws , such as drunken ness, cheating, squabbling, boxing, pilfering, insolence or inattention towards a superior, or the like, that any magistrate is empowered to administer punishment in a summary manner. Whenever the crime is of such a description as to call for severer notice, it is generally exa mined into by five or six tribunals, who not only require very particular information concerning the charge, but scrutinize with minute exactness, into the characters and manners of the accusers . Their proceedings in capital accusations are thus protracted in China , lest any man should be unjustly deprived of the inestimable benefits of honour or life : and no criminal can be executed , until his trial has been sent to court, and his sentence has been confirmed by the Emperor. - A culprit conducted to trial
He is preceded by a man, who strikes upon a gong, in order to draw upon the offender the notice of the public. Two others walk after him , one of whom is employed in keeping up his face with a bundle of cleft A little red banner is fastened on each side of the culprit, to render him more conspicuous ; and his hands are tied behind his back . - Wright Brothers first powered airplane
By 1903 the Wright Brothers were ready to build a powered man-carrying flying machine. Their experiments had shown them just how much moving air was necessary to create lift in such a machine. To create the needed thrust, an engine having eight horsepower and weighing not over 200 pounds had to be fitted into the machine. Such an engine was not available, so the Wrights built one in their shop at Dayton, Ohio. They were ready to ship their airplane to Kitty Hawk, N. C., in the fall of 1903. - The Wright Brothers experimental glider
After a year of exhaustive study and experiments with models in their wind tunnel, the Wright Brothers were ready to experiment with a man-carrying glider. With the thoroughness that was typical of every move of the Wrights, the brothers asked the government to let them have information on meteorological conditions all over the country. By studying the weather charts they were able to find a locality where there was a continual flow of wind. This would be nature’s wind tunnel where they could test their glider day after day. Through their study of the charts they found that the wind conditions at Kitty Hawk, on the North Carolina coast, seemed to offer the best possibilities for their glider test. Orville and Wilbur Wright began their experiments with a small man-carrying glider at Kitty Hawk in 1900. From that time until 1903 they made hundreds of successful glider flights and kept accurate records of each flight. They recorded wind velocity, angle of flight, duration of flight, time of day, temperature, humidity, and sky conditions overhead with the typical Wright attention to detail. Each year the Wrights constructed new gliders which embodied principles they had discovered for themselves during their flights at Kitty Hawk. Each glider was larger and had longer and narrower wings than the one before. During the fall of 1902 the brothers recorded nearly a thousand flights in a glider with a wingspan of thirty-two feet. It had a front elevator and a vertical tail which helped to maintain lateral stability. - The Four forces of flight
after testing more than 200 wing designs and plane surfaces in their wind tunnel, the Wright Brothers found out how to figure correctly the amount of curve, or camber, that was essential to weight-carrying wings. They discovered, too, that before man could be flown through the air, he must have his wings attached firmly to a body or platform which was firm and controllable. The Wrights in their earliest experiments had realized that to be practical their machine must be built not only to fly in a straight line, but also in order that it could be steered to the right or to the left. One day, Orville was twisting a cardboard box in his hand when Wilbur noticed it. Immediately he saw the solution to the problem of steering their airplane. The result was a design which changed the lift of either end of the wing by warping its surface. If one end of the wing was warped to give it more lift, the machine would lift on that side and fall off into a turn. Thus the problem of steering was solved by the Wrights - Wright Brothers' Wind tunnel
They found that a slight curve or camber in the wing section would cause the moving air to travel farther over the top of the wing surface than along the under side. This made the air pressure greater under the wing, gave a suction effect above the wing, and caused it to rise, creating lift. They discovered that a wing section of the proper camber would counteract the weight of gravity. Thus, a wing must be so designed that, with a certain amount of air flowing around it, it would lift a certain weight. They also discovered that air flow against any surface attached to the wing would cause a resistance or drag. Hundreds of experiments in their wind tunnel with various types of wing shapes gave the Wrights a series of tables from which to design a wing that would create the lift for a designed weight. - Wright Brotherrs wind tunnel
The Wright Brothers were not only inspired mechanics (as many people still believe today) but serious scientists, working along the soundest lines. In their keen desire to know what air pressure on wings really was, they cleared a corner of their bicycle shop and built a small wind tunnel with spare lumber and an old electric fan. They built small wing sections of various shapes and experimented with them in their wind tunnel. The electric fan was used to create the moving air around the wing section. By attaching the wing sections to a supporting frame and connecting the frame with a pointer and dial, they were able to keep a record of the effect of moving air on each experimental wing section. Through their wind tunnel research the Wright Brothers discovered the four forces that control all heavier-than-air flight: lift, thrust, weight, and drag. - Wright Brothers' Bicycle shop
Out in Dayton, Ohio, there were two small brothers, who dreamed, as countless other children before them had dreamed, of flying like birds through the air. Their dreams were heightened by a small toy given to them by their father, the pastor of a local church. This toy was to lead to an idea which had a profound effect on the world. You would probably call it a flying propeller. It consisted of a wooden propeller which slipped over a notched stick. By placing a finger against the propeller and rapidly pushing it up the notched stick, the propeller was made to whirl up off the end of the stick and fly into the air. The brothers, young as they were, never quite forgot this little toy as they continued to dream of flying like birds through the air. Though the brothers continued to dream of flying, they were not the kind of lads who spent all their time in dreaming. They made kites which flew a little better and a little higher than those made by the other boys in the neighborhood. They built a press to print their own little newspaper, and they dabbled in woodcuts. To carve out porch posts for their father’s home they built an eight-foot wood-turning lathe. Indeed, they were the sort of boys who caused the neighbors to say, “What will they think of next?” The brothers knew that if they ever wanted to see their dreams come true they must earn their own capital. In the early nineties America was in the midst of the bicycle craze. Everyone who could possibly afford to do so owned a bicycle of some sort and belonged to a cycle club. Being mechanically minded, the brothers did the logical thing. They set themselves up in a small bicycle shop in Dayton, next door to their home. The bicycle shop in Dayton prospered, for the brothers were careful and expert mechanics, and cyclists in need of repairs made their way to the Wright Brothers’ shop. - The Aerodrome
Langley built his plane without much difficulty, but could not find anyone to make an engine large enough for it. Finally, Charles Manley, an expert engineer, asked for permission to build the engine. Manley’s engine was a five-cylinder, radial gasoline engine that developed 51 horsepower and was far ahead of its time. It was years before American radial engines were used successfully in airplanes. Professor Langley called his machine the Aerodrome, and by October, 1903, the plane was ready for its test flight, with Manley to guide it. The Aerodrome was to be launched from a catapulting platform built on the roof of a houseboat. The houseboat was anchored on the Potomac River near Washington. As it left the platform the machine crashed into the river, and the trial was a dismal failure. The newspapers and the public ridiculed Langley, but he and Manley, who was unhurt in the crash, repaired the machine for another trial. This test took place on December 8, 1903, and again the Aerodrome crashed into the river. Manley once more escaped injury, but Langley and the government were abused by the public for wasting money. Langley was out of money himself, the government could not furnish funds for further trials, so the experiments were ended. The professor, discouraged and brokenhearted, gave up. - Octave Chanute experimenting with his gliders on the Michigan sand dunes
Octave Chanute, born in France and reared in America, was one of the first men to make a scientific approach to the problem of flying machines. A thorough scientist, he had followed the progress of all flight experiments the world over. He built gliders with one, two, and even five pairs of wings and tested all of them on the sand dunes of Lake Michigan. His most successful glides were made with a biplane glider. In 1894, he published a book called Progress of Flying Machines, which covered all the efforts of men like himself who had experimented with man-carrying gliders and flying machines. - Leonardo da Vinci's Glider and Parachute Idea
Leonardo da Vinci, the great Italian artist and scientist, who lived in the fifteenth century, spent years experimenting with the idea of flying. He made a number of sketches of wings to be fitted to the arms and legs of man. His plan for a parachute was soundly worked out and his idea that the wings of a flying machine should be patterned after the wings of the bat found expression in the doped fabric covering of our early airplanes. - Besnier and his wings
In 1678, Besnier, a French locksmith, constructed a curious flying machine consisting of two wooden bars which rested on his shoulders. At the ends of the bars he attached muslin wings, arranged to open on the down stroke and close on the up stroke. The wings were operated by moving the arms and legs. Although Besnier failed to realize that no man had sufficient muscular strength to fly as the bird flies, he did sense part of the truth—that gliding with the air currents was possible. During his experiments he is said to have jumped from a window sill, glided over the roof of a near-by cottage, and landed on a barge in the river. - The flight of Etana
Historians have unearthed stories in cuneiform writing of man’s attempts to fly. Some of these inscriptions date back more than five thousand years, to 3500 B.C. Perhaps the most famous of these stories is the ancient Babylonian tale of the shepherd boy, Etana, who rode on the back of an eagle. - Daedalus and Icarus
The story of Dædalus and Icarus also tells us that man believed flying was somehow possible. Dædalus was a very clever man who lived with his son Icarus on the Island of Crete. The king of this island requested Dædalus to build a labyrinth or maze for him. Dædalus constructed the labyrinth so cleverly that only the king, who had the clue to the winding passages, could find his way out. One day the king became very angry at Dædalus and threw both him and his son Icarus into the labyrinth, intending that they should perish. Dædalus, who had been dreaming of flying, fashioned wings from wax and feathers, with which he and Icarus could fly to freedom. He cautioned Icarus that he must not fly too high or the sun would melt the wax in his wings. Icarus, impatient to escape, scarcely listened. Like birds the two flew into the air, quickly leaving the walls of the labyrinth. Dædalus, flying low, safely crossed the sea and reached Sicily. Icarus, unfortunately, failed to heed his father’s warning. Flying was so much fun that he rose higher and higher. Suddenly feathers began to drop one by one. Too late Icarus realized that the sun had melted the wax in his wings. Down, down he fell into the sea. - Augustine Preaching before Ethelbert
In the year 596 Augustine with forty other priests landed in Kent. The name of the king of that part was Ethelbert, whose wife Bertha was a Christian. Ethelbert allowed Augustine to preach before him in the open air ; and very soon he saw how wrong it was to worship idols, and was baptized in the Christian faith. The Britons soon followed the good example shown them by Ethelbert, and gave up their false gods, and became Christians. - Romans teaching the Britons to Build
The Romans built many cities, the names of some of which you know, such as London, and York, and Bath. They taught the people how to plough the fields and to sow corn, that they might have bread to eat. They brought to the country many fruits and vegetables which were quite new to the poor Britons. They showed them how to spin and to weave, and soon they left off dyeing their skins, and began to clothe themselves like their masters; and when they saw the houses which were built by the Romans, they left their dark caves and their rude huts. The Britons were also taught to read and to write, and to speak the Roman language. Nor should I forget to tell you, that the cruel Druids were all destroyed by one of the Roman generals. - Landing of the Romans
- Druids
ALTHOUGH these Britons did not worship images, they believed that there were many gods and their religion was very different from that which is taught us in the Bible. They had priests who were called DRUIDS, who lived mostly in the forests, and taught the people that the Oak was a sacred tree. They worshipped the mistletoe, a plant which grows on the branches of the oak and on other trees. This mistletoe was cut off every year, with a golden knife, by the chief Druid, amid great rejoicing, and was very carefully preserved. The priests wore white linen robes, and let their beards grow very long to distinguish them from the rest of the people. The savages obeyed them because they knew more than anybody else, and tried to find out medicines to cure those who were ill. They used various means to make the people give them presents. On a certain day, at the beginning of winter, they obliged all persons to put out their fires, and light them again from the fire of the sacred altar, telling them, that by so doing they would have good fortune throughout the year; but if any one did not act as they wished, they would not allow him to enter their temples, and his friends were forbidden to give him any help. - Ancient Britons
The country we live in is a large island, called BRITAIN. It is divided into two parts : the northern part is now named SCOTLAND, and the southern part, ENGLAND. At first there were no houses, gardens, or fields, such as we see now; but most of the island was covered with great forests and marshes. The people who lived in it were called BRITONS, and were wild, ignorant savages. In summer they went about naked ; and in winter they clothed them-selves with the skins of the wild beasts which they killed in hunting. Their hair was allowed to grow very long, and they stained their bodies of a blue colour, to frighten their enemies. They ate acorns and other wild fruits, and lived in caves, or in huts made of branches of trees covered over with mud. These were generally built together in little villages in the midst of forests. Their time was chiefly spent in hunting in the woods, or in fishing. For the latter, they used small boats called coracles, made of wicker-work covered with skins. They were often at war with each other, and fought with a rude kind of spear and arrows, of which the heads were made of sharp pieces of stone. The Britons were divided into many tribes. Each tribe had a chief, who led them in battle, and ruled over them in time of peace. - Good Samaritan
- Bound up his wounds
Luke 10:34 And went to him, and bound up his wounds, pouring in oil and wine, and set him on his own beast... - The Good Samaritan
Luke 10:30 - 36 - A House built on the Rock
Matthew 7:25 And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house; and it fell not: for it was founded upon a rock.